The great surveys the British conducted in India were some of their most notable achievements. This paper covers the Great Trigonometrical Survey (GTS) and the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI). Other surveys not covered in this paper include the Geological Survey, the Zoological Survey, the Marine Survey and the Statistical Survey. The paper is largely based on recent official Indian publications.
The first of these, originally known as the Survey of India, was established In 1767 when Major James Rennell was appointed as Surveyor General of Bengal to co-ordinate the sporadic surveys and map making then being undertaken in various parts of the country. The Survey of India was the first scientific department in India and left a profound mark on the country. It was not merely concerned with cartography. It transformed the understanding of the sub-continent’s geography and had far-reaching impacts on administration, economy and cultural heritage.
In 1799, Colonel William Lambton submitted plans for a geographical and mathematical survey. He was appointed in 1802 and the survey was named the Great Trigonometrical Survey in 1818. Lambton’s method involved choosing a 7.5 mile baseline in a flat plane near Madras. He then created a network of triangles, using the baseline measurement as a reference point. By measuring angles and distances within these triangles, surveyors were able to map the terrain with remarkable precision. Between 1802 and 1815 Lambton measured a large number of baselines with a network of triangles up to 18 degrees of latitude. The area covered by trigonometrical measurements during Lambton’s period amounted to 165,432 square miles.
Measurement of the Calcutta baseline in 1832 from a sketch by James Prinsep
George Everest joined the Survey in 1818 and after the death of Lambton in 1823 became its Superintendent. He improved the technique of surveying by observing lights by night instead of flags, and beacons by day. He also replaced triangles by a series of meridians and latitudes. One important success was an accurate measurement of the meridian arc from the southern tip of India to Nepal. This achievement required surveying through varying challenging terrain, including the Himalayan mountain range. Andrew Waugh succeeded him and completed the triangulation of the region between the Great Arc and Calcutta. Under his leadership the heights of 79 Himalayan peaks were determined and the highest was named Mount Everest. By the end of the century the whole country had been surveyed.
Accurate geographic data facilitated the planning of infrastructure projects such as roads, railways and irrigation systems, essential for economic development. Maps were also vital for the collection of land revenues, as they provided information on land use and boundaries. The survey’s work in mapping resources and land use patterns also contributed to optimising agricultural practices and resource extraction. The detailed maps also provided information on India’s cultural and historical landscape.
The work of the GTS is commemorated by several memorials across India including the Lambton Memorial in the village of Perumbauk which marks the site where the initial baseline measurement began. In 2002, as a tribute to him, on the 200th anniversary of Lambton beginning the GTS, a bronze bust of Lambton was unveiled at St. Thomas Mount in Chennai by the then Surveyor General of India. In 2017 on the 250th anniversary of the Survey, commemorations took place in India including the publication of the following document: ( https://pibindia.wordpress.com/2017/04/10/celebrating-250-years-of-surveying-and-mapping-of-the-country-by-survey-of-india/ ) and film ( https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=B8Q7tj1tGZo ). A commemorative stamp was also issued by the Indian Post Office.
The Survey of India Museum, Dehradun
The Archaeological Survey of India
The Archaeological Survey of India has already been referred to in essays for History Reclaimed on How the British Saved India’s Classical History https://historyreclaimed.co.uk/colonial-museums-in-india/ , on The British Role in the Restoration of Buddhism in India https://historyreclaimed.co.uk/the-british-role-in-the-restoration-of-buddhism-in-india/ , and in the Critique of The Golden Road https://historyreclaimed.co.uk/a-critique-of-claims-made-in-the-golden-road-by-william-dalrymple/
This survey was founded very much at the instigation of Sir Alexander Cunningham who had arrived in India in 1833 to take up a post in the Bengal Engineers. He was interested in India’s cultural heritage, acquired a knowledge of Sanskrit, and wrote on a range of subjects relating to geographic, ethnographic, numismatic and architectural themes. He excavated the Buddhist site at Sarnath in 1835, and in 1851 he and Captain F C Maisey explored the Sanchi site. By then Cunningham realised that there was a need for a systematic investigation of Indian archaeology. He submitted a Memorandum to Viceroy Canning in 1861 arguing that it would ‘redound to the honour of the British government to institute a careful and systematic investigation of all existing monuments of Ancient India’. Canning agreed in December 1861 and Cunningham was appointed Archaeological Surveyor to the Government of India.
The achievements of the Survey have been detailed by the Indian Ministry of Culture in a document produced for the Survey’s 150th anniversary celebrations in 2011:
‘Sir Alexander Cunningham was the first Archaeological Surveyor of the ASI and carried out a monumental survey of the entire northern region of India tracing the route of the celebrated Chinese pilgrim, Xuan Zang, and he discovered most of the prominent cities and other establishments and brought them firmly on the archaeological map of India. The ASI gradually grew as a pan-India organisation under Sir John Marshall, whose endeavours culminated in the promulgation of a separate Act to protect and preserve our ancient past. His period also saw the discovery of the Indus Valley civilisation, which pushed back our history to the third millennium BC. The discoveries at Harappa, Mohenjodaro, Taxila, Sarnath, Sanchi etc. by Marshall are hallmarks of discovery and presentation of India’s past before the people.’
Subsequently, the organisation grew enormously, particularly under Sir Mortimer Wheeler, who infused a scientific basis for the investigation of our ancient past. He also introduced full-fledged conservation, chemical preservation and horticulture wings in ASI which have contributed enormously in various ways. Furthermore, the exhaustive field training imparted by Wheeler to Indian students paved a way for them to take over the organisation once the British left. That some of them attained the position of Director-General of the ASI speaks of the methodical and prolific nature of the training imparted by Wheeler.’
Since independence the ASI has expanded its activities in the protection, conservation, preservation and environmental upgrading of 3677 nationally protected monuments. On the 150th anniversary of the ASI, the Prime Minister, Dr Manmohan Singh launched a year-long programme which included four international conferences, a lecture by Lord Colin Renfrew, special publications and the upgrading of 10 museums. A lavishly produced book, Custodians of the Past, was published in 2012. In 2014 on the 200th anniversary of Sir Alexander Cunningham’s birth, a 3-day seminar on ‘Sir Alexander Cunningham and the Art Heritage of India’ was held in Benares University https://www.aryanbooks.com/details.php?prod_id=464&title=
It is clear that these two surveys have greatly assisted Indian economic, agricultural and cultural development. It is in recognition of the importance of these institutions to the country that the services rendered by these British officials over the years are still remembered with admiration and respect in India today.
